Dyscalculia Academy

Cited FAQ

Frequently asked questions about dyscalculia

35 questions, each answered with references to peer-reviewed publications. From definition to diagnosis, intervention and parent guidance.

A. DEFINITION AND BASICS

1. What is dyscalculia?

Dyscalculia (also termed mathematics learning difficulty, MLD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which an individual experiences specific deficiencies in acquiring arithmetic skills despite having normal intelligence and adequate education. It is rooted in dysfunction of brain regions associated with mathematical cognition; genetic, neurobiological, and epidemiological evidence indicates that dyscalculia is a brain-based disorder (Mutlu & Akgün, 2017; von Aster & Shalev, 2007).

2. Are mathematics learning difficulty and dyscalculia the same thing?

In practice they are often used synonymously, though some researchers prefer different emphases. Dyscalculia focuses on the neurological basis and specific arithmetic disorder; mathematics learning difficulty (MLD) is a broader umbrella term. In Turkish academia both terms are used interchangeably (Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

3. How prevalent is dyscalculia?

International studies report a prevalence of 3-7% (Butterworth, 2005; Mutlu & Korkmaz, 2020). Screening studies in Turkey yield results in a similar range; on average 1-2 students per classroom may be at risk for dyscalculia.

4. What causes dyscalculia?

The exact cause remains debated. Two main hypotheses are proposed:

  • Domain-specific deficits hypothesis: Disruptions in the innate numerical core knowledge (approximate number system and exact number system) cause dyscalculia (Spelke & Kinzler, 2007; Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).
  • Domain-general deficits hypothesis: Deficiencies in cognitive functions such as intelligence, language skills, working memory, executive functions, and attention control cause math difficulty (Andersson & Östergren, 2012; Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

5. What are the subtypes of dyscalculia?

Several classifications exist:

  • Geary (1993): Procedural difficulties, semantic memory difficulties, visual-spatial difficulties.
  • Karagiannakis & Cooreman (2015): Core number domain, visual-spatial domain, memory domain, logical domain.
  • Bartelet et al. (2014): Mental number line deficit, approximate number system deficit, spatial difficulties, access deficit, non-numerical cognition deficit, ordinary difficulty group. These classifications are examined in detail in Mutlu and Akgün (2017).

6. What is the difference between dyslexia and dyscalculia?

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability in reading and writing; dyscalculia is a specific learning disability in numbers and mathematics. Both are neurologically based, and they co-occur in 30-40% of cases (comorbidity). However, they affect different brain regions and require different pedagogical intervention approaches.

7. What is numerical core knowledge?

Numerical core knowledge is the innate numerical capacity observed even in infants. It consists of two subsystems:

  • Approximate number system (ANS): Detects approximate numerosity of large quantities.
  • Exact number system (ENS) / Object tracking system: Identifies exact numerosity of small sets; subitizing is part of this system (Feigenson, Dehaene, & Spelke, 2004; Mutlu & Akgün, 2019).

8. What is subitizing?

Subitizing is the ability to recognize/know the quantity of small numbers of objects (typically up to 4) instantly without counting. It develops in early childhood and forms the basis of counting and cardinality knowledge. Olkun and Özdem (2015) found that conceptual subitizing practices increase the computational performance of low achievers (cited in Mutlu & Akgün, 2019).

9. What is the Triple-Code Model?

The Triple-Code Model, proposed by Dehaene (1992), claims that numbers are encoded in the human mind through three different representational systems:

  1. Visual Arabic numeral representation (e.g., “5”),
  2. Verbal representation (e.g., “five”),
  3. Analog magnitude representation (mental number line). In dyscalculia intervention, integrating these three systems is recommended (Mutlu & Akgün, 2019).

The theory of embodied cognition argues that cognitive and linguistic structures are shaped by bodily experience. In mathematics teaching, this means “classroom activities that encourage students to play with objects and turn them into numerical sequences with their hands or whole bodies” (Yalvaç et al., 2011; Mutlu, Akgün & Akkuşci, 2020). Finger-counting is also evaluated as a natural numerical representation tool within this framework.

B. DIAGNOSIS

11. How is dyscalculia diagnosed?

There is no universally agreed method for diagnosing dyscalculia. To address this gap, Mutlu and Akgün (2017) proposed the Multi-Filter Model (MFM). Diagnosis typically involves:

  1. Classroom teacher observations,
  2. Standardized math achievement test,
  3. Specific dyscalculia screening tool,
  4. Intelligence assessment (WISC-R/WISC-IV),
  5. Detailed interview and evaluation.

12. What is the Multi-Filter Model (MFM)?

A diagnostic model proposed by Mutlu and Akgün (2017) in Elementary Education Online, specifically designed for MLD diagnosis in Turkey. It uses five filters:

  1. Teacher’s view,
  2. Dyscalculia Preliminary Assessment Test (DPAT),
  3. Dyscalculia Screening Tool (DST),
  4. Student Recognition Form,
  5. WISC-R intelligence test. Of 75 students, 3 were diagnosed with dyscalculia using MFM. The model aims to reduce dependence on a single test and produce more robust diagnostic results.

13. What are the APA diagnostic criteria for dyscalculia?

The American Psychological Association (APA, 2005) criteria for MLD:

  • A. Mathematical skills, as measured by individually administered standardized tests, are substantially below those expected given the person’s chronological age, measured intelligence, and age-appropriate education.
  • B. The disturbance significantly interferes with academic achievement or activities of daily living that require mathematical ability.
  • C. If a sensory deficit is present, the difficulties in mathematical ability are in excess of those usually associated with it (cited in Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

14. Are clock-reading difficulties a sign of dyscalculia?

Yes, this can be an early indicator. In Mutlu and Korkmaz’s (2020) study with 290 third-graders (29 at risk for dyscalculia + 261 typically achieving):

  • Children at risk for dyscalculia scored an average of 5.45 on a 28-item clock-reading test, while the typical group scored 11.
  • A correlation of r=0.56 was found between math achievement and clock reading; clock reading explains 31% of the variance in math achievement.
  • Half of the 20 dyscalculia-risk children could not draw the given time correctly; most (12) confused hour and minute hands. Therefore, difficulty reading clocks at an early age can be considered an early indicator of dyscalculia.

15. At what age should dyscalculia be diagnosed?

Early diagnosis (1st-2nd grade of primary school) is ideal because intervention efficacy decreases with age. In Turkey, formal diagnosis typically becomes possible from 3rd grade onward. Parental and teacher awareness of early signs is critical (Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

16. Can a school counselor diagnose dyscalculia?

Formal diagnostic authority lies with child-adolescent psychiatrists or clinical psychologists. However, school counselors and special education specialists play a critical role in screening, preliminary assessment, and educational intervention planning. The Multi-Filter Model supports this role distribution (Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

C. INTERVENTION AND TEACHING

17. What are the most effective teaching methods for dyscalculia?

Effective intervention is based on these principles:

  1. Multi-sensory approach: Using visual + auditory + tactile + kinesthetic channels together.
  2. Triple-Code Model based materials: Connecting visual numerals, verbal labels, and magnitude representations (Mutlu & Akgün, 2019).
  3. Number sense activities: Subitizing, number line, approximate counting exercises.
  4. Embodied cognition activities: Concrete experience using body and objects (Mutlu, Akgün & Akkuşci, 2020).
  5. Intensive, short, frequent repetition: Reducing working memory load.

18. How effective is computer-assisted instruction (CAI)?

In Mutlu and Akgün’s (2019) single-subject study published in IJRES, three third-grade students with MLD received CAI for 5 weeks, 20-30 min/day (75 lessons total). Materials were based on educational neuroscience findings.

Findings:

  • Significant improvement in counting, place value, and addition skills.
  • Difficulty persisted with horizontally written addition (e.g., 16+8).
  • Response times decreased, accuracy rates increased.

Recommendation: CAI design should incorporate the Triple-Code Model and models that reduce working memory load.

19. What is DokunSay and how does it work?

DokunSay is a tactile mathematics learning system developed by Prof. Yılmaz Mutlu, designed for students with dyscalculia or math difficulty. With a multi-sensory (visual, tactile, kinesthetic) approach, it enables the construction of number concepts through concrete experience. Mutlu (2018) investigated its effects on the arithmetic skills of preschool children.

20. Is finger-counting helpful or harmful?

The answer depends on context. According to Mutlu, Akgün, and Akkuşci’s (2020) study published in IJCI, based on interviews with 34 teachers:

Advantages:

  • Practical and accessible tool,
  • Provides retention of learning,
  • Concretizes arithmetic operations,
  • Supports internalization of number concepts.

Disadvantages:

  • Especially restricts speed in four operations,
  • May hinder mental arithmetic development,
  • Can become a habit.

Recommended age range: 4-8 years (some researchers say 4-11). For some students with dyscalculia, finger use is a necessity rather than a choice — for these students, alternative concrete materials should be offered instead of banning finger counting.

Important note: According to embodied cognition theory, educational neuroscientists view fingers as “no different from other physical manipulatives”; fingers are a natural numerical representation tool (Moeller et al., 2011).

21. What is the Pabsay method?

Pabsay (finger knuckle counting) is a finger calculation method described by Mutlu (2018). Numbers are counted rhythmically using finger knuckles to perform the four operations (Mutlu, Akgün & Akkuşci, 2020).

22. What is Chisanbop?

Chisanbop is a finger-counting method in which the right thumb is valued as 5, right fingers each as 1, the left thumb as 50, and left fingers each as 10. Through this system, numbers up to 99 can be represented to do arithmetic calculations (Mutlu, Akgün & Akkuşci, 2020).

23. How can I support a student with dyscalculia in the classroom?

Based on the intervention principles in Mutlu and Akgün (2019):

  1. Individualization: Identify the child’s strengths and weaknesses (Dowker, 2009).
  2. Multi-sensory: Present numbers not just on paper, but with manipulatives, movement, and sound.
  3. Visual support: Use number lines, place value rods, ten frames.
  4. Time accommodation: Provide 2-3 times as much time as other students (Geary et al., 2004).
  5. Don’t ignore errors: Analyze the type of error (conceptual, procedural, attentional).
  6. Practice daily math skills like clock reading and money handling extra (Mutlu & Korkmaz, 2020).

24. How long does intervention take?

Dyscalculia is a lifelong neurodevelopmental difference; it is not a “treatable” disease. However, with appropriate intervention, students can make significant progress in mathematics skills. Intensive intervention periods typically last 6 months to 2 years; follow-up and support can continue for years (Mutlu & Akgün, 2019).

D. PARENTS AND CHILDREN

25. How can I tell if my child has dyscalculia?

Early signs by age:

  • Preschool: Skipping during counting, inability to match number names with quantity, lack of interest in number games.
  • Primary 1-2: Excessive reliance on finger-counting in basic addition-subtraction (more than peers), difficulty sequencing numbers on a number line, difficulty understanding place value.
  • Primary 3-4: Inability to memorize multiplication tables, losing steps in multi-digit operations, significant difficulty reading clocks (Mutlu & Korkmaz, 2020), general failure in problem solving, math anxiety.

These signs alone don’t mean dyscalculia; formal evaluation should be done by a specialist.

26. Is dyscalculia hereditary?

Yes, dyscalculia has a significant hereditary component. Twin and family studies indicate a heritability rate of 60-70%. The probability of similar difficulty in first-degree relatives of a child with dyscalculia is 5-10 times higher than in the general population. Genetic, neurobiological, and epidemiological evidence indicates that dyscalculia is a brain-based disorder (von Aster & Shalev, 2007; Mutlu & Akgün, 2017).

27. What is the relationship between dyscalculia and math anxiety?

There is a bidirectional relationship:

  • Dyscalculia → anxiety: Students with MLD develop high math anxiety because they repeatedly face failure. Mutlu, Söylemez, and Yasul (2017) showed significantly different math anxiety levels in MLD and typical students.
  • Anxiety → low performance: Math anxiety independently lowers math performance; PISA data show that math anxiety is negatively related to math performance (Mutlu, Sarı & Çam, 2018).

28. How does parental math anxiety affect children?

Parents are children’s first educators, and their attitudes toward math reflect on the child as role models. According to Mutlu, Sarı, and Çam’s (2018) Parental Math Anxiety Scale (PMAS) study:

  • Parental math anxiety is one of the factors directly contributing to the formation of children’s math anxiety (Kesici, 2018; Yenilmez et al., 2007).
  • As parents exhibit more negative attitudes toward math, children develop similar attitudes.
  • Conversely, parents’ positive attitudes toward math support their children’s math performance (Soni & Kumari, 2017).

PMAS is a 16-item, 3-dimensional scale (validity: χ²/df=2.74, RMSEA=.104, CFI=.95).

29. As a parent, what can I do at home?

Based on Mutlu et al. (2018) and general literature:

  1. Manage your own math anxiety — avoid messages like “I never understood math either.”
  2. Create daily math opportunities: Shopping, recipes, counting toys, games.
  3. Process-focused feedback: Instead of “you’re so smart,” say “you tried well, let’s think about that step again.”
  4. Support clock, money, calendar skills (Mutlu & Korkmaz, 2020).
  5. Don’t solve homework for them — provide guidance.
  6. Seek professional help — school counselors or special education specialists can guide.

30. Does dyscalculia continue into adulthood?

Yes, dyscalculia is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition. Adult impacts:

  • Difficulty with salary calculation, taxes, paying bills,
  • Avoiding numerical fields in career choices,
  • Low mathematical self-efficacy,
  • Difficulty evaluating numerical evidence in decision-making (Mutlu, “Effects of Dyscalculia on Personal Life” study).

However, with proper intervention and accommodations, adults can lead fully functional lives.

E. ACADEMIC AND TURKISH CONTEXT

31. Who are the leading dyscalculia researchers in Turkey?

Prof. Yılmaz Mutlu (Muş Alparslan University, Department Chair of Elementary Mathematics Education) is among Turkey’s pioneer researchers in dyscalculia. ORCID: 0000-0002-4265-856X. With 777+ citations on Google Scholar, he developed the Multi-Filter Model (MFM) and the DokunSay material. He is also the founder of the Dyscalculia Association of Turkey.

Other key research groups: TED University (Prof. Sinan Olkun), Atatürk University (Prof. Levent Akgün), Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University (Dr. Mehmet Hayri Sarı).

32. Is there a dyscalculia association in Turkey?

Yes. Dyscalculia Association of Turkey (Diskalkuli Derneği) was founded in 2017 in Muş — Turkey’s first and only association in the dyscalculia field. It is run by a volunteer team of academics and education specialists. Website: diskalkulidernegi.org.

33. Who developed the Multi-Filter Model?

Mutlu and Akgün (2017) proposed the Multi-Filter Model in their study published in Elementary Education Online. This is a model specifically designed for MLD diagnosis in Turkey and is also recognized in international literature as Turkey’s specific contribution to the field.

34. Who developed DokunSay?

DokunSay was developed in 2018 by Prof. Yılmaz Mutlu as a tactile mathematics learning system. Mutlu (2018) scientifically investigated its effects on the arithmetic skills of preschool children.

35. Where can I get help for dyscalculia in Turkey?

  1. School counselor — referral to RAM (Guidance and Research Center).
  2. Guidance and Research Center (RAM) — formal evaluation.
  3. Dyscalculia Association of Turkey (diskalkulidernegi.org) — guidance through provincial representatives.
  4. Dyscalculia Academy (diskalkuli.com) — training, materials, and expert support.
  5. Child-adolescent psychiatrist or clinical psychologist — formal diagnosis and clinical evaluation.

REFERENCES

  • Mutlu, Y., & Akgün, L. (2017). A model proposal for diagnosis of mathematics learning difficulty: Multi Filter Model. Elementary Education Online, 16(3), 1153-1173. doi:10.17051/ilkonline.2017.330247
  • Mutlu, Y., Söylemez, T., & Yasul, A. F. (2017). Math anxiety in students with and without math learning difficulties. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education.
  • Mutlu, Y. (2018). The effects of DokunSay number tablets on the arithmetic skills of preschool children.
  • Mutlu, Y., Sarı, M. H., & Çam, Z. (2018). Development study of parental math anxiety scale. Anemon Mus Alparslan University Journal of Social Sciences, 6(STEMES’18), 139-145. doi:10.18506/anemon.463756
  • Mutlu, Y., & Akgün, L. (2019). Using computer for developing arithmetical skills of students with mathematics learning difficulties. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 5(1), 237-251.
  • Mutlu, Y., & Korkmaz, E. (2020). Investigating clock reading skills of third graders with and without dyscalculia risk. International Online Journal of Primary Education, 9(1).
  • Mutlu, Y., Akgün, L., & Akkuşci, Y. E. (2020). What do teachers think about finger-counting? International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 12(1), 268-288.
  • Mutlu, Y. (2024). Beyond Numbers: A Scientific Look at Mathematics Learning Difficulty (in Turkish). Ankara: Vizetek.

Full publication list: see yayin_katalogu.md